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INFLUENCE OF
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ASSERTIVENESS ON PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOURS
ABSTRACT
Empirically
explored in the study were emotional intelligence and assertiveness on
pro-social behaviour. One hundred and eighty-six students (83 males and 103
females) of the University of Uyo, Uyo in Akwa Ibom State, were used in the
study. Valid questionnaires and scales were used in the present study, such as;
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) developed by Dr.
Nicola Schutte (1998), Rathus Assertiveness Scale (RAS) by Spencer Rathus
(1973), and Adult Pro-Socialness Scale developed by Caprara (2005), were the
scales used in collecting raw data from the participants. The study used a 2x2
factorial design and a 2-way ANOVA was the statistics used and analysed using
version 20 of SPSS. The result indicates that emotional intelligence exerted a
significant effect on pro-social behaviour, F (1,183) = 36.43, P<0.01); also
found in the present study indicated that assertiveness exerted a significant effect
on pro-social behaviour, F (1,183) = 36.43, P<0.01). thus, accepting the
first and second hypothesis earlier stated, that students with high level of
emotional intelligence will exhibit high level of pro-social behaviour than
students with low level of emotional intelligence and also investigated in the
present study is that students with high level of assertiveness will have high
pro-social behaviour than students with low level of assertiveness and was thus
confirmed. With discussion, and conclusion drawn. All drawing strength from
earlier stated literature. Implication, recommendation and limitation given.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1.INTRODUCTION
Identifying
the conditions necessary for human flourishing depends in part on the
perspective one chooses to take. One can take the perspective of an average
person and ask, ‘what is necessary for an individual to flourish?’
(Heintzelmanrt al, 2012). Alternatively, one can take the perspective of a
community or a society composed of many persons and ask, ‘what is necessary for
a community to flourish?’ Taking an individual’s perspective will invariably
highlight the necessity of finding meaning in life as a fundamental personal
need (Heintzelman & King, 2014).
Viewing
one’s own life as meaningful is associated with greater longevity, better
physical health, and reduced depression and anxiety (Taylor, Kemeny, Reed,
Bower, & Gruenewald, 2000). In contrast, taking a communal perspective will
invariably highlight the necessity of pro-social behaviour as a fundamental
communal need. Pro-social behaviour is critical for creating the trust and
cooperation necessary to sustain impersonal and complex societies and markets
(Bowles & Gintis, 2003). The present research investigates whether the
personal and communal perspectives are linked. Specifically, I test whether
helping other people can increase helpers’ perceptions of meaning in life,
thereby establishing an empirical connection between personal and societal
flourishing.
There are at
least two reasons to predict that helping others can increase a sense of
meaning in life. First, helping other people can increase helpers’ sense of
self-worth, which is one of the basic needs that must be satisfied to achieve a
sense of meaning in life, according to prevalent theoretical accounts
(Baumeister & Vohs, 2002). Helping other people can increase selfworth
because pro-social behaviour is universally admired and valued (Grossman,
Uskul, Kraus, & Epley, 2015). Helping other people is a way for helpers to
gain social acceptance and build a positive reputation, which in turn increase
helpers’ social status in their communities (Grant & Gino, 2010). Because
social acceptance is a critical determinant of self-worth and self-esteem
(Leary & Baumeister, 2000), the reputational benefits of pro-social
behaviour are likely to increase self-worth, which in turn can increase the
sense that life is meaningful. Second, another reliable predictor of
meaningfulness is social connection with others (Stavrova & Luhmann, 2016).
Accordingly, social exclusion and loneliness can lead to substantial
psychological damage, including decreased sense of meaning in life (Cialdini
& Patrick, 2008). Helping another person is one of the most basic ways to
establish and reinforce social connection.
Therefore,
helping may increase meaningfulness by increasing the sense of connection to
others. The present research tests whether either or both of these two potential
mechanisms – emotional intelligence and assertiveness – can explain the
relationship between helping and meaningfulness.
Although
helping is primarily intended to benefit recipients, existing research finds
that helping creates benefits for helpers as well. As mentioned, the most
obvious benefit helpers receive is a boost to their reputation in the eyes of
others. Observing a person help another increases evaluations of the helper,
and in turn motivates recipients and observers to cooperate with helpers in
subsequent interactions (Klein & Epley, 2014). This reputational mechanism
is thought to underlie a substantial portion of the incentive for pro-social
behaviour in general (Rockenbach & Milinski, 2006). Because helping others
is viewed positively, helpers can expect to be rewarded with social approval
and goodwill. Helping others also creates psychological benefits that do not
necessarily depend on others’ judgments and reciprocity. Empirical evidence has
thus far pointed to psychological benefits that are mostly hedonic in nature,
increasing positive emotion and decreasing negative emotion. For example,
spending money to benefit other people can increase happiness compared to
spending money to benefit oneself (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010). Volunteering is
associated with higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction (Thoits &
Hewitt, 2001). Helping can also reduce sadness associated with seeing another
person in need of help (Cialdini et al., 1987).
However,
meaningfulness and happiness are distinct in important ways. For example,
people find meaning in painful and stressful events in their lives, despite
being unlikely to extract happiness from such events (Baumeister, Vohs, Aaker,
& Garbinsky, 2013). Other experiences, such as nostalgic reflection on the
past and thinking about one’s own mortality, increase people’s sense of meaning
despite being hedonically negative (Benzoni & Tost, 2009). Compared to
happiness, meaningfulness spans a wider range of emotions than simply positive
ones, and is also associated with purely cognitive processes such as mental
simulation and counterfactual thinking (Waytz, Hershfield, & Tamir, 2015).
Therefore, simply because pro-social behaviour creates hedonic benefits does
not necessarily mean that it also creates eudemonic benefits.
Intelligence
is considered as one of the most desirable personality qualities in today's
society. I.Q. and E.Q. tests are presently employed for many purposes such as
selection, diagnosis and evaluation in all parts of society. It claims that, it
is the single most effective predictor of individual performance at school and
on the job (Andoh, 1998).
Evolutionary
trend shows human beings to be the most pro-social of all species, which being
a social species helps and guides their fellow mates to surge ahead in the
battle for existence (Simpson et al., 2008). The term “pro-social” relates to
behaviours which are positive and intend to benefit other individuals. This
beneficial behaviour is further defined as which “covers the broad range of actions
intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself-behaviours’ such as
helping, comforting, sharing, and cooperating” (Batson etal., 2003).
Quite
interestingly, whenever we refer to pro-social behaviour, the term Altruism
intervenes. Altruism can be defined as “A motive to increase another’s welfare
without conscious regard for one’s self-interests” (Myers, 2010). There is
hardly anyone-to-one interaction between the two concepts, since altruism is a
motivational notion behind initiating beneficial action towards the welfare of
others and pro-social behaviour is the action itself, but it’s not a necessary
criterion for a pro-social act to be altruistically motivated or an altruistic
motivation to produce pro-social behaviour (Batson et al., 2003).
Definition
of Intelligence
According to
David Wechsler, intelligence can be defined as the aggregate of an individual
to act with purpose and to deal effectively with the environment. Wechsler also
postulated in 1943 that non-intellective abilities were important predictors
for success in one’s life (Cherniss, 2000).
Definition
of Emotions
Emotion is
derived from the word “emover” which means to move or excite. More recently,
the term relates to any subjective experience. Emotions can relate to expression
of love, hate, attraction, aggression and disappointment (Girdhalwal, 2007).
Emotions are internal events that coordinate many psychological subsystems
including physiological responses, cognitions and conscious awareness. Emotions
arise in response to a person’s changing relationships. When a person’s
relationship to memory, to his family, and to humanity changes, this person’s
emotions will change” (Tucker, Sojka, Barone & McCarthy, 2000)
Emotional
Intelligence is essential for any student, as they are the leaders in their own
life and drive either their success or failure of obtaining a degree. As any
student would know, the motivation to success has to lie within themselves as
the demands and stress levels are all part of the pursuit of educational
success. The university and their staff complement act as a medium to obtain
this degree, therefore, they are the management of the organization. Together
with the leaders (students); who should be emotionally equipped to identify
their own emotions and the emotions of other subjects; and the management
(university) they play an ideal role in the performance and success of the
student.
“Emotional
intelligence describes the ability, capacity, skill, or self-perceived ability
to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of
groups” (weiten, 2007). People who possess a high degree of emotional
intelligence know themselves very well and are also able to sense the emotions
of others; they are malleable, resilient, and optimistic. Student involvement
in extra-curricular activities can greatly contribute to students' development
in social competence, reflective thought, altruism, and self-awareness (Kuh,
1993). Such opportunities foster the development of the student (Goleman,
1998). Individuals with emotional
intelligence have the ability to identify and utilize emotional information and
then use that knowledge to manage relationships and solve problems (Mayer,
Caruso, Panter, & Salovey, 2012).
Emotion is
one of such factor which is said to play a significant role in the development
of helping actions or pro-social behaviours, along with pro-social values and
motives (Eisenberg, 1986, ). In alliance to the concept of “emotion” as a
prevailing factor behind “pro-social behaviour”, a construct namely “emotional
intelligence” has been found to be an antecedent carrying a lot of positive
attributes one of which is pro-social behaviour (Mayer, Hsee & Salovey,
1993).
Emotions are
involved in everything people do: every action, decision and judgment executed.
Emotionally intelligent people recognize this and use their thinking to manage
their emotions rather than being managed by them. In the course of last two
decades, Emotional Intelligence (EI) concept has become a very important
indicator of a person‘s knowledge, skills and abilities in workplace, school
and personal life (Mayer, Hisee & Salovey, 1993).
Defining
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional
Intelligence represents a specific
subset group of tasks to social intelligence. It does not only encompass
reasoning about emotions in social relationships, but also reasoning about
internal emotions that are important for personal growth. EI is also more
focused than social intelligence in that it pertains to emotional problems
embedded in personal and social problems (Tucker et al., 2000). Emotional
Intelligence (EI) is used interchangeably with Emotional Quotient (EQ) in many
ways, where these terms are representative of emotional awareness and emotional
skills. It is pointed out that an emotionally skilled person is skilled in four
areas: identifying, using, understanding and regulating emotions (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990).
Salovey and
Mayer (1990) defined the term Emotional Intelligence (EQ) as the ability to
perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions in order to assist and
understand emotions and emotional meanings. Bar-On (1996), defines EI as an
array of personal, emotional and social abilities and skills that influence one’s
ability to succeed in coping with the environment. It addresses the emotional,
personal, social and survival dimensions of intelligence that are more
important for daily functioning than traditional aspects of intelligence. This
encompasses emphasises on the understanding of oneself and others and adapting
to changing demands. Salovery and Mayer (1997) defines EI as involving the
ability to perceive accurately, express emotion, access feelings, understand
emotions and promote emotional and intellectual growth. Webster‟s New World
Dictionary defines intelligence as the ability to learn or understand from
experience or to respond successfully to new experiences, the ability to
acquire and retain knowledge (Elder, 1997). However, EI is distinct from other
intelligences and it is the intelligence applied to emotions. It is an
individual difference where not all people are endowed with the same EI. EI
develops over a person’s life span and can be developed during training. Thus,
involves particular abilities to reason intelligently about emotions and the
ability to understand and to manage emotions (Palmer, 2001).
Goleman
(1998), explains emotional intelligence as the capacity for recognising one’s
own and others feelings for motivating and managing emotions within
relationships and within ourselves. In an organisational context if emotions
are properly managed it can lead to trust, loyalty and commitment. (Vrba 2007)
defines EI as an individual’s ability to use awareness of emotions to manage
behaviour and relationships with others. (Hughes, Patterson and Terrell 2005)
defined emotional intelligence as feelings individuals have in relationships.
They stated that emotional intelligence can be defined as the capacity to
reason with emotions and emotional signals and the capacity to enhance thought.
Hayward et
al., (1997) define emotional intelligence as an array of cognitive skills,
capabilities and competencies that influences a person’s ability to cope with
environmental demands. However, the literature brings forth no consensus on the
exact nature of emotional intelligence. (Goleman 1998) suggested five pillars
or competencies of emotional intelligence viz. self-awareness, self-regulation,
social awareness and social skills. (Bar-On 2000), defined emotional intelligence
as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills
(intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management) that can influence an
individual’s ability to cope with environmental demands.
The Origin
of Emotional Intelligence
The seeds of
EI has been in bedded in what is known as Social intelligence (SI) which was
first proposed by Thorndike in 1920 cited in (Kobe, Reiter-Palman &
Rickers, 2001) and is defined as the „ability to understand and manage men and
women, boys and girls. As a result of ongoing research and expansion of the
knowledge of social intelligence, researchers have concurred that social
intelligence contains two components (Kobe et al., 2001):
· Being aware of or noticing others‟
needs and problems;
· Adapting to different social
situations.
Evidently EI
and social intelligence overlap and the dilemma appears to be whether EI is a
component of SI as it appears that SI has subsumed EI. Furthermore, it appears
that SI has a much broader scope than EI and therefore could explain more of
the variance associated with leadership (Kobe et al., 2001).
Robert
Thorndike also noted the importance of non-cognitive aspects of intelligence
for success. The work of these two researchers was not highly regarded as
meaningful until 1983 when Howard Gardner started to write about “multiple
intelligence”. He argued that intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences
were as important as other measures of IQ (Cherniss, 2000).
Goleman et
al (2000), have suggested that EI as a construct on its own, is not a strong
predictor of job performance but provides the competencies that are. Goleman
attempted to prove this by distinguishing between EI and emotional competence.
He argued that emotional competences are linked to EI (Cherniss, 2000).
Mayer and
Salovey’s ability model defines EI as a set of mental abilities that has to do
with emotions and the processing of emotional information as well as contribute
to logical thought and intelligence. In terms of this model, abilities are
arranged from basic psychological processes to complex psychological processes
and develop with age and experience. Mayer and Salovey further postulates that
these abilities are independent of traits and talents and preferred ways of
behaving (Gardner & Stough, 2001).
The model
proposed by Wolmarans (1998) is a mixed approach to EI, where the EI assessment
tool as depicted by the 360-degreee assessment instrument, as it is applicable
to the South African organisational context. Wolmarans (2002) developed a
statistically validated emotional intelligence tool taking into account seven
competencies: self-motivation, self-esteem, self-management, change resilience,
interpersonal relations, integration of „head and heart‟ and emotional
literacy. This instrument is designed to provide accurate feedback, information
on critical behaviours for success and direction for individual development.
This instrument therefore collects performance assessments from supervisors,
peers, clients and subordinates. These assessments are then collated and a
comprehensive feedback report is provided on an individual’s performance and
competence. According to Wolmarans (2002) the purpose of the Emotional
Competency Profiler (ECP) is to give the individual an opportunity to reflect
on their emotional skills through their own eyes as indicated by the ratings of
others.
A number of
researchers and authors have emphasised the importance of understanding and
managing the impact of emotions and related behaviours in an organisational
context. There appears to be a strong interest from the corporate sector as
they seek to gain competitive advantage over competitors. EI arose from the
assumption that it can contribute to the success and achievement of personal
goals more so than IQ (Bar-On, 1988).
Bar-On
developed a non-cognitive model and defines EI as an array of non-cognitive
capabilities, competencies and skills that influence’s an individual’s ability
to cope with environmental demands and pressures. Bar-on states that the
component of the model relates to develops over time and can be improved
through training and development programs (Gardner et al., 2001).
One of the
more prominent researchers in this area argued that social intelligence is
distinct from academic abilities and plays a very important role in determining
how well individual deals with practicalities in later life. Goleman (1995)
adapted a model of Salovey and Mayer (1990) to explore how EI relates to
working life. According to his model, EI was split into two elements known as:
personal and social competence. In terms of the competence model, emotional
competencies must be learnt. Emotional competence is defined as a learnt
capability based on EI that can result in outstanding performance at work
(Cherniss & Goleman, 2001).
Goleman
(1998) has suggested an EI framework that consists of four clusters:
· Self-awareness – being aware of
emotions and its significance; having realistic knowledge of strengths and
weaknesses; having self-confidence.
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