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EFFECTS OF
TWO INSTRUCTIONAL SCAFFOLDING STRATEGIES ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
ACHIEVEMENT
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effect of two
Instructional Scaffolding Strategies on Secondary School Students’ Achievement
and Interest in Biology in Udi Education Zone, Enugu State. The study adopted a
factorial research design which helped the researcher to determine the main
effects of two treatments in one single experiment. Six research questions and
six null hypotheses guided the study. A sample of 140 students from four intact
classes purposively selected from government co-educational secondary schools
in Udi Education Zone, were used for the study. The main instruments for the
study consisted of Biology Achievement Test (BAT) and Biology Interest
Inventory (BII) which were developed, validated and used for data collection.
The instruments (BAT and BII) were trial-tested on 30 SS 2 students of Nsukka
education Zone. The data collected from BAT and BII were tested for reliability
using Kuder-Richardson (K-R 20) and Cronbach Alpha statistics. Reliability
indices of 0.89 and 0.86 respectively were obtained which guaranteed the use of
the instruments for the study. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer
the research questions while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test
the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed among
others that Cueing Questions strategy has more effect on students’ mean
achievement scores in Biology than the Concept Mapping strategy; Cueing
Questions strategy has more effect on students’ mean interest scores in Biology
than the Concept Mapping strategy; The posttest and adjusted mean achievement
scores were greater than the pretest mean achievement scores with the male
students having higher mean score than their female counterparts; There was a
significant effect of Cueing Questions and Concept Mapping as instructional
scaffolding on students’ achievement in Biology with those taught using Cueing
Questions strategy having a higher mean achievement score. There was a
significant effect of Cueing Questions and Concept Mapping as instructional
scaffolding on students’ interest in Biology with those taught using Cueing
Questions strategy having a higher adjusted mean interest score. There was no
significant interaction effect of gender and strategies on students’ mean
achievement score in biology. There was a significant interaction effect of
gender and strategies on students’ mean interest score in biology. Based on the
implications of the study, it was recommended among others that curriculum
development bodies such as the National Research and Development Council
(NERDC) and other curriculum bodies should focus towards preparing Biology
teachers to acquire appropriate skills in instructional strategies such as
Cueing Questions and Concept Mappings. Based on the findings of the study, conclusions
were drawn, the limitations of the study and suggestions for further
studieswere equally made.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
of the Study
Biology is a
branch of natural science that deals with the study of living organisms, their
structures, functions, evolution, distribution and interrelationships. Biology
occupies a unique position in the secondary school education curriculum because
of its importance as science of life. In Nigeria, the secondary school Biology
curriculum is designed to continue students’ investigation into natural
phenomena, deepen students’ understanding and interest in biological sciences
and to encourage students’ ability to apply scientific knowledge to everyday
life. Biology is one of the science subjects taught at the senior secondary
school levels in all Nigerian secondary schools today which attracts the
greatest patronage of both science-oriented and arts-based students (Nwachukwu
and Nwosu, 2007), Nwagbo (2008) pointed out that the structure of the Nigerian
secondary school requires a student to do one science subject, and Biology is
the science subject most of the science students opt for on the false premise
that it is the easiest of the sciences. For this reason, Biology has a very
high enrolment of students in the external examination (West African
Examination Council, 2011). Biology as a school subject is expected to help
students understand and deal with their natural environment and the organisms
living within it. Biology also deals with the interactions between living and
non-living components of the environment (Nwagbo, 2008). A sound knowledge of
Biology is pre-requisite for entrance into such professions like Medicine,
Pharmacy, Nursing, Biochemistry, Genetics and Agriculture that are of great
economic importance to the nation.
Despite the
importance of biology as a school subject, available statistics from the West
African Examinations Council (WAEC, 2009-2013) revealed that candidates achieve
poorly in the examination. For instance, an average of 82.4% of the candidates
that sat for Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (S.S.C.E) in Biology in
2009 failed to obtain grades at credit level and above, which could qualify
them for university admission in Biology and other science-related disciplines
(West African Examinations Council Chief Examiner’s Report, 2009). An analysis
of the result of the performance of candidates in Biology at WAEC SSCE
(2009-2013) as seen in (Appendix A), page 150 showed that the majority of the
candidates scored below credit level or failed to obtain the grades A1-C6. By
implication, most students cannot gain admission into tertiary institutions to
study Biology or its related disciplines. This leaves one in doubt about the
effectiveness of instructional approaches employed by the Biology teachers for
the teaching and learning of Biology.
The West
African Examinations Council (WAEC) Chief Examiners’ Report for Biology II in
Nov/Dec, 2013 showed that the candidates’ performance was slightly poorer than
that of the previous years with a mean score of 17 and a standard deviation of
8.77. The observed weaknesses include shallow knowledge of the subject matter
and poor performance in questions on cell and its environment, genetics,
ecology and feeding relationships among others.
Researchers
have shown that Biology teachers do not always employ effective instructional
approaches in teaching the subject (Nwagbo, 2001 and Nwosu, 2007). This has led
to situations where students cannot apply the knowledge of Biology in real life
situations. Agama (2009) posited that in most secondary schools, teaching
methods are mainly based on inappropriate instructional approach, which
requires teachers to give explanation or demonstration while students usually
focus on textbook reading, note taking and memorization of facts. Evidence has
shown from WAEC Chief Examiners’ Report that there is high rate of failure in
Biology, which could be traceable to the quality of teaching (More, 2003). To
buttress this, Nwagbo (2008) had earlier asserted that the quality of any
educational programme in any country is the function of those who teach it.
Nwagbo opined that even a good curriculum and a well stocked laboratory would
still not give the desired result in the hands of incompetent Science,
Technology and Mathematics (STM) teachers.
Nwokelu and
Afe as cited by Nwakonobi, (2008), revealed that complaints abound from
students, teachers, parents, West African Examination Council (WAEC), and even
Ministry of Education officials about the inability of some students to perform
creditably in some subjects like Biology, Chemistry and Physics, to name a few.
These poor academic achievements could be as a result of ineffective teaching
methods adopted by the teachers.
Some
researchers have indicated that underachievement in science subjects such as
Biology is linked to inappropriate methods of teaching in senior secondary
schools (Okoye & Okeke, 2007; Nwagbo, 2009). For instance, classroom
observations in many Nigerian secondary schools during teacher supervisions showed
that the majority of the teachers do not apply appropriate science strategies
as identified and recommended to be effective for science instruction (Norom,
2009). Biology classroom activities are still dominated by teacher-centered
instruction which has been found to be ineffective in promoting Biology
learning at senior secondary school level (Uzoechi, 2008). Nwagbo (2006)
observed that such teacher-centered approach, which places the teacher as the
sole possessor of knowledge and the students as passive recipients of
knowledge, may not enhance achievement or promote positive attitude to Biology
in particular and science in general.
Science
learning is expected to produce individuals that are capable of solving their
problems as well as those of the society. Such individuals are expected to be
autonomous (that is independent; not relying on anybody before explaining the
materials learnt when the need arises), confident and self reliant. Obiekwe
(2008) reported that all is not well with science instruction in Nigerian
secondary schools, and noted that science teaching lays extreme emphasis on
content and the use of “chalk and talk” method neglecting the activity-oriented
method which enhances teaching and learning. This negligence and ‘shy away’
attitude from activity method of teaching has led to abstraction which makes
the students less active and more prone to rote memorization (Obiekwe, 2008).
The
ineffective teaching strategies used in Biology teaching have been the most
important factor in underachievement (Okoye and Okeke, 2007). Some of the other
factors include: incompetent mode of teachers’ delivery, inadequate use of
instructional materials, students’ attitude, ill-equipped Biology laboratories
and vast nature of Biology curriculum (Umeh, 2008). Ukaegbu (2006) proffered
reasons for the poor performance to include ineffective teaching strategy,
careless drawing and labeling, incompetence and laziness on the part of
teachers. This situation has created the need for more effective teaching
strategies. It then becomes necessary to explore the efficacy of other
alternative strategies of redressing this situation. Research findings have
indicated that the use of innovative teaching strategies such as co-operative
learning, games and simulation and peer teaching could enhance interest and
achievement in science. This study therefore investigated the effect of two
instructional scaffolding strategies (cueing questions and concept mapping) on
students’ achievement and interest in Biology. The effects of these two
instructional scaffolding strategies on the achievement and interest of male
and female students were also investigated.
Scaffolding
is a learning process designed to promote a deeper level of learning.
Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored
to the needs of the students with the intention of helping the student achieves
his/her learning goals. Scaffolding is a teaching technique whereby the teacher
models the desired learning strategy/ task, then gradually shifts
responsibility to the students. In literal terms, scaffolding refers to poles
and wooden boards that are joined together to make a structure for workers to
stand on when they are working (Vygotsky, 1978). It is used when building high
structures such as storey building. Scaffolds are pillars for support to both
the building and the builder. Scaffolding as an educational concept is the
assistance (parameters, rules, or suggestions) a teacher gives to the students
during the instructional process to achieve learning. Vygotsky added that
scaffolding instruction is the “role of teachers and others in supporting the
learners’ development and providing support structures to get to the next stage
or level”. As a learner gains control of these new learning, the teacher
withdraws the support gradually as the learner becomes increasingly able to
complete the task alone. The teacher then plans and provides further support on
new learning. In using scaffolding, the teacher’s job is to help bridge the gap
between what a student already knows and what he will learn next. A ‘scaffold’
ensures that children are not left to their own devices to understand
something. The support is removed when the student is ready, like the
scaffolding that support workers who have been constructing or repairing a
building. The scaffolds provide the workers with both a place to work and the
means to reach work areas that they could not access on their own which is
removed when construction is complete (Olota, 2015)
In
instructional scaffolding, the instructor initially provides extensive
instructional support, or scaffolding to continually assist the students in
building their understanding of new content and process. Once the students
internalize the content and/ or process, they assume full responsibility for
controlling the progress of a given task. The temporary scaffolding provided by
the instructor is removed to reveal the impressive permanent learning that has
taken place (Hartman, 2002).
Instructional
scaffolding involves three major levels.The content, task and material
scaffolding. At the content level, the teacher breaks instructional plans to
lead the students from what they already know to a deep understanding of what
they do not know (Turn, Turnbull, shank and Leal, 1999). Scaffolding plans must
be written carefully, such that each new skill or bit of information that the
students learn serves as a logical next step based upon what they already know
or are able to do. The instructor must prepare both to continuously assess
students’ learning and to connect new information to the students’ prior
knowledge.
The second
level of instructional scaffolding is task scaffolding; the instructor provides
support to the learners at every step of the learning process (Turnbull etal,
1999). At the beginning of the process, the instructor models the task in its
entirety. Having observed their instructor’s model, the students begin guided
practice by performing parts of the task independently. The instructor assists
the learners with their early practice and continuously assesses their
learning. As the students gain experience with and understanding of new
information or task, the instructor increases the complexity of guided practice
activities and gradually reduces his or her support. By the end of a
well-executed scaffolding plan, the students perform the entire task with
little or no support from their instructor (Turnbull etal, 1999).
The third level is material scaffolding which
involves the use of manipulatives, verbal or physical prompts and cues to help
the learner perform a task or use a strategy. This may take the form of cue or
guided examples that list the steps necessary to preform a task. They can use
this example to reduce confusion and frustration. The cues and prompt must be
phased out over time as learners master the steps of the task or strategy
(Piper, 2005). There are actually five different instructional scaffolding
techniques identified in research study by Hogan and Pressley, (1999) and they
include: Modeling of desired behaviours, advanced organizer worked examples,
offering explanations, inviting students to contribute cues, inviting student
participation, verifying and clarifying student understandings. These
techniques may either be integrated or used individually depending on the
material being taught. The instructor’s goal in employing scaffolding
techniques is offering just enough assistance to guide the learners toward
independence and self-regulation.
Scaffolding
techniques are used in conjunction with scaffolding instructional materials.
These materials fit into one of the following categories: reception scaffolds,
transformation scaffolds or production scaffolds (Hartman, 2002). Reception
scaffolds help learners to effectively gather information from available
sources. They keep the learners attention focused on important information, and
they prompt the learner to organize and record what they see. For example, a
web-like graphic organizer called concept map prompts the students with focus
questions, and provides them with a framework for organizing their answers.
Whereas reception scaffolds help the student to identify structure already
present in a given source, transformation scaffolds help the learner to impose
structure on information, for example, a student who is studying the mechanism
of inhalation or exhalation might be asked to represent this on a chart. The
transformation scaffold is the blank chart which prompts the learner to
categorize information logically. Finally, production scaffolds are tools that
prompt the student to convey what they have learned in an effective way. For
example, an instructor might prepare an outline or template to help her
students organize their book. The three different kinds, of scaffold may either
be integrated or used individually to support students’ learning. With the
right techniques and materials, an instructor can provide the temporary support
that students need to grow intellectually.
In education, scaffolding refers to a variety
of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger
understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process.
Teachers provide successive levels of temporary support that help students
reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not
be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the
supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed,
and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process
to the student. Scaffolding can be used at any level of education and in any
discipline including Biology, but it requires detailed planning on the part of
the teacher. In using scaffolds, the teacher helps in breaking down complex
tasks into manageable bits, motivates learners, brings clear direction and
reduces students’ confusion. The teacher also clarifies expectation and
incorporates assessment and feedback, and students understand why they are
doing the work and why it is important. It points students to worthy sources to
reduce frustration and time. In educational setting, there are many
instructional strategies that can be used to break down complex tasks into
manageable bits that will lead to acquisition of new knowledge. Such strategies
enable students to breakdown topics or concepts into smaller units and help
students acquire skills needed to link inter-relationship among concepts (Mang,
2003). Such strategies could include the use of cueing questions and concept
mapping.
Concept mapping originates from concept maps.
Rao (2015) refers to concept maps as diagrammatic representations which show
meaningful relationships between concepts in the form of propositions which are
linked together by words, circles, and cross links. A concept map is a diagram
showing relationships between concepts. A concept map presents the relationship
among a set of connected concepts and ideas. Concept maps are identified as
two-dimensional, hierarchical, node-linked diagrams that depict verbal, conceptual
or declarative knowledge in succinct, visual or graphical forms (Rao, 2015).
In concept
maps ideas are arranged hierarchically with the superordinate concepts at the
top of the map, and subordinate at the bottom which are less inclusive than the
higher ones (Ejimonye, 2015). Concepts are connected with labelled arrows, in a
downward branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts is
articulated in linking phrases, e.g “give rise to”, ‘helps’, “results in”, “is
required by” or “contributes to” (Novak and Canas, 2008). A concept map is a
special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge, gathering and sharing
information (Olaniran, 2004). Concept mapping is the strategy employed to
develop a concept map. It is an instructional strategy that presents key
concepts as knowledge maps that act as scaffold to facilitate learning. It was
developed in 1972 by Novak and his associates at the Cornell University. The
primary objective of novak’s research effort was to develop a model for overcoming
the problem of students’ rote learning of concepts in science (Novak and Canas,
2008).
Concept
mapping seems to be a promising strategy for meaningful learning since it
enables the learner to consciously connect new knowledge with relevant concepts
already known. Several studies such as Pankratius, Udeani, Markor and Loaning
as cited by Ahiakwo (2001) have reported that concept mapping could be a viable
strategy that can help teachers to be more effective, foster curriculum
development and promote students’ hands-on activity. Use of concept mapping in
facilitating hand-on-task learning is explained by the constructivist theory
(Vygotsky, 1978), which states that hand-on-task learning enhances experiential
learning. In concept mapping new knowledge is integrated into existing
structures in order to enhance understanding (Stoica, Moranu & Miron,
2011). It makes learning process explicit and requires the learner to pay
attention to the relationship between concepts. It helps in presenting
diagrammatically and in hierarchical order the relationships or
inter-relationship of a new concept/idea with existing or already known
concept/idea (Rao, 2015). According to Ejimonye (2015) hierarchical
presentation of ideas usually from simple to complex could enhance students’
achievement and interest in a subject and Biology is not an exception.
Concept
mapping is an instructional scaffold for it provides support through
diagrammatical representation and orderly presentation of the relationship
between concepts or components of a concept using links, lines, and nodes for
meaningful learning. Concept maps are helpful as a tool to gauge students’
understanding because they make the knowledge construction process visible
(Sungur, Tekkaya and Gebban, 2001). Concept mapping enable learners to focus on
fine details, experiencing a structured step-by-step approach, representing
their knowledge structures graphically and visualizing programming concepts and
procedures as a network of interrelated ideas (Association for Computing
Machinery, 2015). Students through the links shown by the concept map on a
concept could easily understand the concept without much explanation by the
teacher. When the students through the concept map understand the links among
components of a concept or the relationship between one concept and another,
they can reason beyond the framework when the concept map is removed. Thus,
concept map as instructional scaffold could enhance students’ understanding of
concepts towards a better academic achievement.
Concept
mapping as instructional scaffold provides learning environment that appeals to
students’ sights (visuals) and teachers’ explanation of the concept maps
appeals to the students’ hearing, just like cueing questions that appeal to
students’ sight and hearing to promote learning. Cueing from the researchers
point of view is giving somebody a hint that will enable him grasp/ understand
the idea the teacher is trying to convey or cueing is a hint that offers
additional useful information to the students in a way that pushes the student
to follow the correct thinking process. Cueing is giving somebody a signal so
that the person is reminded of something that aids correct responses. Mayer
(2009) defined cueing as the addition of cues to the verbal or visual content
to direct the learners’ attention to the essential elements of the
presentation. Cueing questions are questions posed as a hint to direct the
learners’ attention to what they are expected to learn or series of questions
that will help the teacher to elucidate or throw light in the subject matter
with a view of assisting the students to have a better understanding. Each
question takes you a step further towards the realization of stated objectives.
A teacher's
overall instructional effectiveness depends heavily on how that teacher uses
instructional cues. A cue consists of a word, phrase, or sentence that
describes a particular aspect of a concept or skill. While cues most often
focus on motor skill development in physical education, they may also target
fitness, strategy, character
development,
or any other aspect of lessons teachers deem appropriate. A growing body of
research suggests that cues enhance learning by improving student attention,
comprehension, and retention. Cues enhance the attention or focus of learners
by restricting what they need to think about. Since learner's capacity for
attention is limited, it is important to enhance this capacity with relevant,
rather than irrelevant (or perhaps, less relevant) stimuli. Consequently, cues
play an important role in directing students’ attention towards the most
critical information, and away from less critical information. As Buchanan and
Briggs (1998) posited that while having more than one cue for the same movement
is useful, the teacher should be careful not to confuse students by bombarding
them with endless variety of hints.
Verbal
cueing is adding non-content cues to the verbal information such as
underlining, bold-face or headings, etc. Non-content cues are signs/signals, or
symbols that can help in better understanding of main ideas of a concept.
Visual cueing is adding non-content cues to the visual representations (Lin and
Atkinson, 2011) such as, increasing the luminance of specific objects, adding
arrows, changing the colour among others. In educational context cueing is
providing guides to students on the most effective and efficient way to process
the material (Mautone and Mayer, 2011). Cues do not add new information to the
content or change the content of the instructional material (De-Koning,
Tabbers, Rikers and Paas, 2009). Cueing guides the learner’s cognitive
processing and helps the learner to select the relevant information, organize
the information logically and integrate the information with prior knowledge by
providing responses (Mautone and Mayer, 2011). De-Koning, Tabbers, Rikers and
Paas (2009) propose three functions of cueing: guiding learner’s attention to
facilitate the selection and extraction of essential information, emphasizing
the major topics of instruction and their organization and making the relations
between elements more salient to foster their integration.
Cues and
questions are strategies that help students to use teachers’ hint and their
prior knowledge to enhance their learning about new content. Cue is a hint that
offers additional useful information to the student in a way that pushes the
students to follow the correct thinking process. A hint, by contrast, could
offer any information that will help students provide the correct answer to a
question. A question is any sentence which has an interrogative form or
function (Cotton, 1988). The author opines that in classroom settings, teacher
questions are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that convey to the
students the content elements to be learned and directions for what they are to
do and how they are to do it. The benefits of cueing questions include to
develop interest and motivate students to become actively involved in lessons;
to evaluate students’ preparation and check on homework or classwork
completion; to develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes; to
review and summarize previous lessons; to nurture insights by exposing new
relationships; to assess achievement of instructional goals and objectives; to
stimulate students to pursue knowledge on their own.
A teacher's
questions impact on students’ achievement, retention and participation. They
fulfil numerous instructional purposes including: assessing understanding,
reviewing and summarizing, developing critical and creative thinking skills and
inspiring interest and motivation. Research has shown that an absence of
questioning during teaching results in lower achievement levels than
instructions that feature questioning (Cotton, 1989). Questions should focus on
the important content to be learned in order to maximize understanding and not
distract from it (Marzano, Pickering and Pollock 2001). Teachers need to be
aware of the level of questions they ask according to the revised version of
Bloom's Taxonomy Nwagbo (2008). Teachers also need to cue their questions in
order to strengthen students’ critical thinking especially for questions they
have little or no understanding.
Ideas may be
expressed creatively through several types of cues, including, but not limited
to acronyms, alliteration, rhymes, slogans and similes or word pictures. Cue
may be instrumental in helping learners connect new learning to old learning.
When learners get stuck, teachers may respond so that they can improve
understanding, correct an error, or address a misconception. The way a teacher
responds can leave the students feeling either successful or helpless. In this
phase of the teaching and learning process the teacher and students share
responsibilities between them. Teachers, however, can use questions before a
learning experience to establish a “mental set” with which students process the
learning experience. Again, higher-level questions tend to produce deeper
levels of learning.
Cues can be straightforward ways of activating
prior knowledge. Using cues, teachers can provide students with a preview of
what they are about to experience. For example if a teacher asks the students
questions about what they use to breathe, how they breathe, and what happens to
their ribs’ region when they breathe, the teacher gives students cues on ideas
about respiration and respiratory system. These questions will provide support
for students’ understanding of the concept of respiration and respiratory
system. It is probably safe to say that cueing and questioning are at the heart
of classroom practice. Knowledge of cueing questions and appropriate use of
cueing questions as instructional scaffolding could facilitate students’
achievement. It might be possible that the use of innovative instructional
strategieslike concept mapping and cueing questions could enhance achievement
in Biology. However, it appears that most teachers of Biology are not aware of
cueing question strategy and do not use it during instruction and this may have
some effects on students’ academic achievement in Biology.
Students’ academic
achievement deals with the extent students have gained from a particular course
of instruction. From the researcher’s view achievement can be viewed as the
extent to which knowledge has been grasped by a student or the extent to which
a student has internalized what has been taught and this can be demonstrated by
his score when he is tested. According to Johnson (2002) and Shaibu and Usman
(2002) students’ achievement refers to students’ intellectual attainment or
performance in a subject. Omachi (2000) defined achievement as the scholastic
standing of a student’s performance at a given moment. It has to do with the
successful accomplishment of goals. The purpose of testing achievement is to
help the teacher and the students evaluate and estimate the degree of success
attained in learning a given concept. It is also useful in testing the extent
of students’ interest in the teaching learning process. It is equally
appropriate in determining the efficiency of instruction. One of the issues at
stake in education today is students’ achievement measure in relation to
teaching and the overall success of learning outcome. Hassan (2006) pointed out
that effective learning and sound academic achievement contribute to national
development. It is something of great importance to parents, teachers and
students themselves. The larger society is aware of the long term effects of
high and low academic achievement since the products of schools are expected to
shape the destiny of the society. Ahiakwo (2001) opined that this is possible
if the students are focused in what they are learning for proper acquisition
and they can only do this if they are interested in what is being taught in
school. To buttress this, Adesoji (2008) indicated that students who develop
positive interest in school subjects usually perform better than those who do
not have interest in studying.
The
researcher views interest as what somebody has developed a passon for.
According to Anaekwe (2006) interest can be seen as the feeling one has in the course
of wanting to know or learn more about something or somebody. Okebukola (2002)
perceives interest as a learned response of liking or preferring. To Okebukola,
the aim of emphasizing interest is to motivate students towards actions which
aid learning. Interest can be intrinsic when it comes from within and extrinsic
when it comes from external influences. Nwagbo (2006) states that students’
interest in Biology is jeopardized by the teacher’s authoritarian and
introverted styles. Nwagbo advocated the use of self- learning devices as a way
of getting students interested in Biology. There is need therefore to teach
Biology in an inspiring manner in order to achieve meaningful learning.
Interest is an important variable in learning because when one is interested in
an activity, one is likely to be deeply involved and inspired to learn. Offorma
(1994) opined that to neglect the learner’s interest while selecting the
content implies neglecting a very strong motivational factor in the teaching
learning process which can mar learning. Therefore, teachers should use
instructional strategies that arouse students’ interest in Biology in order to
enhance better achievement in the subject. Hence, there is the need to
investigate if the use of cueing questions and concept mapping as scaffolding
could lead to changes in students’ achievements and interest in Biology. Since
the use of cueing questions and concept mapping as instructional strategies
engages both male and female students actively at the same time, there is need
to investigate if the two could help to streamline gender differences in
science.
An issue of
contention in Nigeria today is the issue of gender in the society including the
educational system. From the reseachers view, gender roles are roles which society
assigns to a man or woman in accordance with the culture and tradition of that
society. Gender is a set of characteristics distinguishing between males and
females, particularly in the case of man and woman which, depending on the
context, may vary from sex to social role to gender identity (Bland, 2003).
According to Okeke (2004), gender is a social or cultural construct,
characteristics, behaviour and roles that vary from place to place or culture
to culture. It is not like sex, which is biologically determined and universal
too. The issue of closing gender gap in sciences has remained elusive. In
recent times gender related issues in science education have continued to
receive serious attention judging from the number of studies done to that effect.
Babajide (2010) opined that science subjects which include Physics and
Chemistry are given masculine outlook by educationl practioners. In addition to
this, studies by Ogunleye (2002), Ezirim (2006), Okwo and Otuba (2007), show
that academic achievement in science subjects depends on gender. However, Nwosu
(2001) found out that students’ acquisition of science process skills is not
gender specific. In addition, studies by Ogunleye and Babajide (2011) and
Agomuoh and Nzewi (2003) lend credence to significant gender differences in
science achievement. Madu (2004) and Agomuoh (2010) found out that gender
influences students’ conceptual shift in favour of male students. Therefore,
the issue of gender and students’ academic achievement has been inconclusive. While
there are some views that male students perform better than females, others
disagree with this view, arguing that achievement is a factor dependent on
several factors such as socio- economic background, cognitive ability, type of
exposure and appropriate teaching strategies, among others. Therefore, one sees
that the issue of gender has not yet been resolved particularly in relation to
students’ achievement and interest in Biology, hence the need for further study
in that regard, especially when trying out new instructional scaffolding
strategies.
Researchers
over the years have developed or employed several teaching methods or
strategies to improve students’ learning. Most of the methods or strategies
have been empirically proven to enhance learning and in turn improve
achievement. But the reality on ground indicates that students’ achievement in
most subjects especially Biology needs urgent attention. Therefore, a strategy
that will help students to correctly answer any question asked by their instructors/teachers
is very pertinent. Thus, this study investigated the effects of two
instructional scaffolding strategies on secondary school students’ achievement
and interest in Biology.
Statement of
the Problem
Biology as a
branch of science and a prerequisite for many fields of learning, contributes
immensely to the technological growth of the nation. Over the years, the
achievements of students in Biology in Nigerian secondary schools have been
very poor. WAEC Chief Examiners’ Reports of 2009-2013 depict poor achievement
of students in Biology. This, in addition to research findings, could be
attributed to teachers’ use of inapproriate teaching strategies and lack of use
of innovative teaching methods by teachers. Of all the causes of under
achievement of students in Biology, traditional teaching method has continued
to receive a major condemnation. This could be because of its ineffectiveness
in arousing the interest of students, thus leading to constant underachievement
and lack of interest by the students. To overcome the problem of
underachievement of students in Biology, researchers have advocated the use of
innovative teaching methods as opposed to traditional methods of teaching
Biology. Innovative instructional scaffolding strategies could be a solution to
the problem of poor achievement and interest of students in Biology. The
innovative teaching strategy requires students to be active participants in the
process of teaching and learning. This attribute of innovative teaching
strategy is near absence in most schools and could be responsible for lack of
understanding which in turn leds to poor achievement. Hence, the problem of
this study was to find out the effect of two instructional scaffolding
strategies on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in Biology.
Purpose of
the Study
The main purpose of this study was to
investigate the effects of two instructional scaffolding Strategies on
secondary school students’ achievement and interest in Biology. This study
specifically sought to determine the:
1. Effects of two instructional scaffolding
strategies on students’ mean achievement scores in Biology.
2. Effects of two instructional
scaffolding strategies on students’ mean interest scores in Biology.
3. influence of gender on students’
mean achievement scores in Biology.
4. influence of gender on students’
mean interest scores in Biology.
5. interaction effect of gender and
instructional strategies on the mean achievement scores of students in Biology.
6. interaction effect of gender and
instructional strategies on the mean interest scores of students in Biology.
Significance
of the Study
The results of this study have both
theoretical and practical significance. It is expected that the findings of
this study will lend credence to the effectiveness and authenticity of the
tenets of Jerome Bruner’s cognitive view of discovery learning, Ausubel’s
assimilation theory and Vygotsky’s constructivist theory. The findings will
help to strengthen the application of these theories in teaching and learning
of science subjects, specifically in Biology. Bruner’s cognitive learning theory
believes that learning does not occur as a result of perceptions of events that
happen to the learner but rather occurs as a result of the learner’s
construction of perceptions (both emotional and intellectual) into schema upon
which concepts are organized and networked. The theory postulates that learning
could be enhanced when the learner is engaged in the teaching learning process
towards personal discovery of facts. Ausubel’s theory of assimilation advocates
meaningful learning. It postulates that learning occurs when there is an
interaction between the students’ prior knowledge and the materials to be
learned. These theories explain how students learnt through interaction with
materials in the environment so that the students can use the experience gained
in learning process in another situation. The primary idea of Ausubel’s theory
is that learning of a new knowledge is dependent on what the learner already
knows. Vygotsky’s constructivist theory believes in learning through personal
construction of knowledge and ideas. In other words, construction of knowledge
begins with the observation and recognition of events and objects through the
concepts that are already possessed. This theory grew out of the learner’s
knowledge of how best they learn during the learning process. The teacher’s use
of instructional scaffolding strategies could help the learners to construct
their own knowledge during the learning process following the scaffolding
strategies it is possible for students to practice by themselves and share
ideas with others. These theories are useful to the present study in terms of
learner’s ability to construct knowledge by themselves. Ausubel’s assimilation
theory is related to the present study because sound knowledge of biology is
demonst
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